01806nas a2200169   4500008004100000022001400041245006200055210006000117260001200177300001600189490000600205520130800211653002801519100002001547700002101567856004801588       2008                        eng d  a1474-442200aBrain-computer interfaces in neurological rehabilitation.0 aBraincomputer interfaces in neurological rehabilitation  c11/2008  a1032–10430 v73 aRecent advances in analysis of brain signals, training patients to control these signals, and improved computing capabilities have enabled people with severe motor disabilities to use their brain signals for communication and control of objects in their environment, thereby bypassing their impaired neuromuscular system. Non-invasive, electroencephalogram (EEG)-based brain-computer interface (BCI) technologies can be used to control a computer cursor or a limb orthosis, for word processing and accessing the internet, and for other functions such as environmental control or entertainment. By re-establishing some independence, BCI technologies can substantially improve the lives of people with devastating neurological disorders such as advanced amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. BCI technology might also restore more effective motor control to people after stroke or other traumatic brain disorders by helping to guide activity-dependent brain plasticity by use of EEG brain signals to indicate to the patient the current state of brain activity and to enable the user to subsequently lower abnormal activity. Alternatively, by use of brain signals to supplement impaired muscle control, BCIs might increase the efficacy of a rehabilitation protocol and thus improve muscle control for the patient.10aUser-Computer Interface1 aDaly, Janis, J.1 aWolpaw, Jonathan  uhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1883554102345nas a2200229   4500008004100000022001400041245005800055210005700113260001200170300001400182490000600196520170800202653002201910100002001932700002201952700002001974700001801994700002002012700002102032700001502053856004702068       1996                        eng d  a1063-652800aTherapeutic neural effects of electrical stimulation.0 aTherapeutic neural effects of electrical stimulation  c12/1996  a218–2300 v43 aThe use of a functional neuromuscular stimulation (FNS) device can have therapeutic effects that persist when the device is not in use. Clinicians have reported changes in both voluntary and electrically assisted neuromuscular function and improvements in the condition of soft tissue. Motor recovery has been observed in people with incomplete spinal cord injury, stroke, or traumatic brain injury after the use of motor prostheses. Improvement in voluntary dorsiflexion and overall gait pattern has been reported both in the short term (several hours) and permanently. Electrical stimulation of skin over flexor muscles in the upper limb produced substantial reductions for up to 1 h in the severity of spasticity in brain-injured subjects, as measured by the change in torque generation during ramp-and-hold muscle stretch. There was typically an aggravation of the severity of spasticity when surface stimulation reached intensities sufficient to also excite muscle. Animals were trained to alter the size of the H-reflex to obtain a reward. The plasticity that underlies this operantly conditioned H-reflex change includes changes in the spinal cord itself. Comparable changes appear to occur with acquisition of certain motor skills. Current studies are exploring such changes in humans and animals with spinal cord injuries with the goal of using conditioning methods to assess function after injury and to promote and guide recovery of function. A better understanding of the mechanisms of neural plasticity, achieved through human and animal studies, may help us to design and implement FNS systems that have the potential to produce beneficial changes in the subject's central nervous systems.10aTreatment Outcome1 aDaly, Janis, J.1 aMarsolais, E., B.1 aMendell, L., M.1 aRymer, W., Z.1 aStefanovska, A.1 aWolpaw, Jonathan1 aKantor, C.  uhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8973948